An Account of the Purchase of a Television Set in Singapore

CASE 5 : AN ACCOUNT OF THE PURCHASE OF A TELEVISION SET IN SINGAPORE Question 1 : What are the different stages in the buying process for a television set? What critical stimuli or events drive each stage? The buying decision process is a basic psychological process. This process plays an important role in understanding how customers make their buying decision. In this case, the consumer are planning to purchase a bigger television set, which can be placed in their living room, while the current television will be moved to their bedroom.Referring to the case, there are five different stages in the buying process for a television sets which are problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision and post purchase behavior. STAGE MODEL| DESCRIPTION| a) Problem recognition| * The buying process is start with problem recognition. A need can be activated through internal and external stimuli. * As a consumer, they have to recognize a problem occurred and the needs of the new television set.In this, the external problem occurred when her parent in law decided to move in with them. The purpose of buying new television is to give more appropriate environment and to avoid conflicts with her parent in choosing the television programs. Besides that, it is to give a better perception to the relative. While the internal stimuli derived when * Their budget for the new television set is RM 1300 only. | b) Information Search| * After problem recognition, the consumer tries to solve it and gathers the sources and information about the television set.There are four consumer information sources which is : i) Personal sources ( family, relatives, friends, neighbors etc) ii) Commercial sources (advertisement, salesman, dealers) iii) Public sources (mass media, consumer rating organizations) iv) Experiential sources (handling, examining, using the products) * In this case, they have started browsing a newspapers and magazines, browsing an internet and website to compare the different models available in market. In order to get more information, they also get a recommendation from their friends and colleagues.Besides that, they also make a visit to the household shop to learn about the product specifically. | c) Evaluation of alternative| * After collected the information, the consumer have to clarify and evaluates the alternatives that they find out. First, they have to clarify a need of a new television set. * In this case, they plan to have a new television set when their parents decided to move in to their house. This is to avoid conflicts with their parents in choosing the television programs and to give a better perception to their family. Besides that, they have to look at the benefit from the product selected. As a consumer, they have to choose which television will give more benefit to them and can satisfy their needs. | d) Purchase decision| * Evaluation behavior leads the consumer to form a ranked set of preferences . In making buying decision, they will consider a few factors which is a) Attitude of others such as husband, family, relatives, friend. b) Anticipated situational such as expected family income, expected total cost of the product and the expected benefits from the product. ) Unanticipated situational as look or manner of the salesman * In executing a purchase intention, the consumer have to make up five sub decision : a) Brands, b) Dealer c) Quantity d) Timinge) Payment method (cash or credit card) * At this stage, the consumer has to choose either JVC 29† flat screen or Panasonic 29†. * For JVC 29† flat screen, the television set was came with four years warranty, special discounts of 15% and will get a free gift; JVC VCD worth of S$180. The model also has a futuristic look and matched with their furniture. However, the price was slightly higher than their estimated budget. While for Panasonic 29†, the television set was come with one year warranty, no free gift and the price was lower from their budget. * Finally, after evaluate and considering all the factors and recommendations, they have decided to purchase the JVC 29† flat screen model although the price exceeded their budget. | e) Post purchase behavior| * After buying and trying the product, the consumer will feel some level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction and the level of satisfaction depends very much on the expectation and the product’s perceived performance. In this case, the consumer is very satisfied and happy with the television set because it matches up to her expectations. | Question 2 : What are the social and psychological factors influencing the buying process for a television set? In the buying process of a television set, there are social and psychological factors that will influence the consumer. The social factors influences customer buying decision includes culture, subculture, social class, reference group and family. Culture is the set of beli ef, attitudes and behavior patterns shared by members of the society and transmitted form one generation to the next.For example, most of the Singaporeans will spend much of their free time at home watching television. So the television set is an important household appliance for every family. Reference group includes a variety of groups that effect consumer behaviors through normative compliance. In this case, reference group that influencing them in buying process are referring to family consist of husband, wife, parents and relatives. While the psychological factors influencing the buying process of a television set are motivation, perception, learning and memory.Motivation will drive a person to act in achieving their needs. In this case, the consumer has many needs such as privacy, esteem, belongings and discomfort. In achieving their needs, the consumer will collect all the information and evaluate the alternative that they find out in choosing the best television set. Questio n 3 : What lesson can be learnt for the marketing of television sets from understanding the consumer buying process and influences? Perception is the process when the consumer select, organize and interprets information.In this scenario, the consumer has been influenced by the salesman about the quality and performance of the television set after he explained the features and functions of the different models. The features of the message and the way it is communicated was influenced the consumer perceptions. Learning involves the changes in an individual’s behavior arising from the experience. In this case, the consumer has learned from the salesman/salesgirl behavior, such as when they went to the Courts, no salesperson entertain them and at the Electric City & Best Connection, the sales person failed to give the best services to her customer.These bad experiences have change the interest of the consumer to buy television set with them. Memory is all about the information an d experiences that have been encounter as they go through their life. In the stages of the buying television set, the consumer will influence with the famous and high quality brand of television in Singapore. In the marketing of television sets, understanding the consumer buying process is very important. As the marketer, they must identify needs, wants and demands of the consumers. They also have to consider all the buying process factors and try to provoke the feeling of risk in the consumer perception.

An Event That Changed My Attitude Towards Life Essay

An accident last year changed my attitude towards life . That accident had a great impact on me , it taught me to treasure what i have and to treasure those people around me more . Although the accident was not life threatening , it was still the scariest thing i had ever been through in life . It was an accident that no one would have expected and wanted it to happen . The accident happened sometime last year during the june holidays , while i was having my council annual camp . It was the second day of the camp and we were all playing the four corners captains ball . I love ball games , as long as it is a sport but who knew such an accident would happen on me . When the game started , students were banging and pushing everyone they see as long as they are not from the same team . As the game goes into the second half , competitiveness began to rise , actions of defending and attacking was beginning to seem more obvious . It was finally my turn to play, i was so excited that i ran around attacking and defending , supporting my teammates as an when they needed me . After a while , there was a free throw ball , therefore i decided to slow walk backwards. Before slow walking backwards , i checked that there wasn’t anyone behind me just to prevent any accident to occur . After making sure that it was safe to walk backwards , i then proceeded walking backwards , but who knew a girl that was thrice my size ran pass me and i tripped over her leg and instantly fell backwards . The only thing that in my mind was not to let my head hit against the concrete ground hence i used my right hand to break my fall . I fell against the ground and my right hand lost its strength immediately. I thought that it was just a small injury therefore i just stood up , bear with the pain and walked back to my team’s home ground . While i was walking back , i felt that something was wrong as i could not move my wrist area at all . Due to my CCA we are all required to learn first aid , therefore i could sense something was terribly wrong . I then went to my friend who was also in my CCA and asked her if there was something wrong with my wrist area . When i showed her my wrist , she gasp in utter shock like she did not know what to do and had never seen any injuries like this before. I was curious why she gasped in that way and took a look at my own wrist , i then got as shocked as her as my wrist bone was jutting our and it was swollen . She touched the swollen part lightly without any force and it was so painful that i cried . The pain was excruciating , it was a type of feeling that i would never want to feel it again . Many of my teammates started crowding around me , getting more worried and concern about my hand , the president of student council was then notified about someone was injured. She then walked over to my team home ground and saw a girl on the floor crying . She got shock knowing that the person was me as i was a strong girl , no matter how pain it was i would try my best to bear with it and not drop a single tear . She was then aware of how much the pain was and knew it was unbearable . The teacher-in-charge was then notified while i was walking to his office with people supporting my wrist and my upper part of my body as did not had the strength. The teacher saw me and the state of my wrist and then told the president and my best friend to be beside me while asking the rest of the students to continue with the game before going back into his staff room to get some materials to make a temporary cast just to protect my wrist from getting hurt further . My best friend was then assigned to be by my side while my teacher drove me to the nearest hospital which was the Changi General Hospital . Honestly , it was my first time going to the Accident and Emergency department i was scared and worried about what will happen to my wrist and how will my parents react. While my teacher was doing all the registration i sat there in state of shock . It was really a blessing having my best friend by my side comforting me and constantly telling me everything will be alright . I was then called to do some X-RAYS before consulting the doctor . My parents finally came and just right it was my turn to consult the doctor , my mother then went in together with me . The doctor was then examining my X-RAYS that i took before consulting him . My heart was beating very very fast as I am a right hander and i need my right hand to do many things. Finally the doctor spoke , he said that there was no obvious or major fractures shown in my X-RAYS but i have to put an temporary cast on my hand. He then referred me to a specialist at KK Children Bone Specialist to ensure there was no hairline fracture or any small minor fractures . I was on cast for one month . My appointment with the specialist then arrived , it was a few days after my holiday trip . I then went to KK Hospital and got my cast removed as the specialist confirmed that there was no hairline fractures or what not it was only an inflamed tendon and the impact of the fall that cause it to swell. I felt so happy after my cast was being removed , but at the same time i was also upset as the physiotherapist said that i have to wear the plastic cast for at least a month and i will not be able to do anything that require strength on my wrist . To me , i was basically handicapped . I thought the that my life could not get any worser but it did . Due to the extreme pain my wrist facing , i was then prescribed with a particular painkiller called ‘Bufen’ . My family then went to my Aunt’s house for a family dinner , once i reached my Aunt’s place , i took my painkiller as i had consume food before the visit to the doctor. The painkiller itself causes drowsiness therefore i needed to take a nap after taking the painkiller . I took a nap for 1 hour and wanted to wake up for dinner but to my horror i was unable to open my eyes , i was then scared out of my wits , jumped off the bed and screamed very loudly . My Aunt , Uncle , Cousins and my parents then came into the room and on the light getting a shock after seeing my eyes . I was then crying and trying to open my eyes at the same time but all i could see was total darkness . I was only able to differentiate who was who when i listen to their voices clearly. I sat on the bed feeling panic and scared , all that was on my mind was ‘ would i go blind and never see this world again? there are still so many things i want to see and admire . i cannot afford to go blind ‘ . My dad then called up the KK Hospital and told them what happened to me , i was then asked to make a trip down to the A&E as soon as possible . My parents then immediately brought me to the A&E at KK Hospital . I was then examined and asked to stay there for a day to make sure my condition is stabilized and that there was no more allergy reaction. The doctor then came to my ward and asked me if i had any drug allergy , i said no. This was an unknown allergy that had only been discovered then . While i was lying down on my ward bed , the nurse gave me a pink liquid medication to help my allergic reaction to subside . The next morning when i woke up , i was finally able to open my eyes and the first thing i saw was my parents siting beside my bed asleep . I then realized how much i did not treasured them and how great they were . The nurse came to check on me , my parents woke up and i was able to be discharged. I was so happy that i finally could open my eyes and see the world and the bright sun . After this accident , i do still play ball games but i never walked backwards again . This accident made me realized how much i was taking my parents for granted and how much i was not contended with my life . I decided to change my point of view of my life and to change my attitude towards my life , making sure that i would not wait till something bad like that happen again to realize how much i have not been treasuring the people around me and the things i have.

Network Security & Applications Research Proposal

Network Security & Applications - Research Proposal Example Thus, this is very important to train the basic computer users and information systems manager in mind, teaching the ideas required to read through the hype in the marketplace and recognize threats associated with the computer security and how to cope with them (Network Security, 2010; Curtin, 1997). In addition, the network security is turning out to be more and more significant in view of the fact that people spend more and more time connected. In this scenario, compromise on network security is frequently much easier than compromise on physical or local security, and is much more frequent. However, there are numerous good tools available to help improve network security, as well as majority of them are shipping with Windows features (The Linux Documentation Project, 2010). The new web based or web-supported tools offer a range of effective software features and services to the consumers, workers and business associates. These services could be easily managed and handled. Additiona lly, the new information technology offers access to a major business resource such as the web server, which gives the capability to access various other useful information resources, for instance database servers (ITSecurity).

My experience with Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My experience with Religion - Essay Example I would have to say no unfortunately. I did attend Sunday School but many of things that the pastor spoke about were not covered. I suppose that I was clueless about my own religion until my mother purchased a Volume of Children’s Biblical stories. These books gave me a better understanding and perspective of the religion I was practicing. At first I really did not enjoy going to church, but when I joined the youth choir and started attending Vacation Bible School, church visits suddenly had a purpose. As an adult, I continued to attend church regularly. However, I decided to change churches because my childhood church was nothing more than a fashion show. The new church that I began attending was not as big as my previous church. Also, the pastor and the congregation were very accepting of me and did not care what I wore so much. I attended this church for about six years, but I became very disgusted with the sinful acts that people in the church were engaged in. At that point, I decided to leave the church and find my way. I was told as a child that people that attended church were Christian and lived strictly by God’s way. However, I realized that many members in the church were committing great sins. These were terrible sinful acts, such as sleeping with other members’ husbands or wives, going to the bar after church, frequently using profanities, etc. Due to witnessing these actions, I lost my faith and decided to leave the church for good. After years of not attending church, I realized that going to church gave me a purpose in life. I now understand that I should have never left God’s Kingdom. I now realize that I have no control over the wrong doings of others. If I continue to live right by God, then that’s all that matters. I was very happy when I learned that Empire State College would offer a course on Religion and Spirituality. I hope that this class will give me better outlook on the various religions practiced in our society.

Legal implications and risks of the errors on the website Essay

Legal implications and risks of the errors on the website - Essay Example This essay discusses that before you consider this type of loan, you may want to look into whether you really need a second mortgage. If you decide to go for it, make sure that your house is appraised to know its market value. This is because the amount that will be offered in your loan will be dependent on the equity of the house. You should also search for the rates that are the best and that are available by seeking free quotes from several lenders. You will compare and have the capability to choose the best of the rates. Secondly, your monthly payments need to be worked out for both the first and the second loans. Finally, you need to check the terms of the loan, the penalties, and the costs. It is necessary that you understand what deal you are signing and whether you are required to pay for more processing fees or even closing costs. In some companies, there are pre-payment penalties which apply for a second mortgage. When you understand the terms of the loan, you should commit towards proceeding with it.In conclusion, Cosy Couches is obligated to take irreparable measures to alleviate any future anomalies in its website to ensure that no legal implications arise with its customers. Regarding the anomaly that arose, it should be tackled well as discussed above and ensure that the case is settled. On the case of acquiring the loan, the company is in the best line of expansion but it calls for Mr. Martin, the Managing Director, to come up with decisive measures to ensure that the personal guarantee is workable and effective. ... Nevertheless, the company has to offer to make it worthwhile and negotiate with the customer; since the said party has the right to sue for misinforming them.4 It is only right legally, to allow the customers purchase at the price that they placed their orders, despite the fact that this will lead to a loss. Making them change the order may lead to a number of lawsuits that will not only tarnish the name of the company, but that will also be costly.5 However, the customer may take advantage of these circumstances to try and reap from the company by mode of blackmailing, buying more at the same price or even tainting the image of the company. It is in the capacity of the director of the company to bar any more order regarding the old advertisement and still decline sale of the â€Å"sweet dreams† sofa-bed under the claim that the customer manipulated the website for their own gain. The manipulation could have been in the form of hacking into the website or by the use of an insi de man.6 This should only be applied if the customer has tried to divert from the purchasing of the â€Å"sweet dreams† sofa-beds at the price that they made the purchase at. In any case the customer agrees to purchase at the price that is normal, â€Å"?799†, it is important that a gesture of appreciation is shown to them and to also convince them to sign a letter of confidentiality concerning the said matter regardless of which price the said customer bought the â€Å"sweet dreams† sofa-beds at. In the case of intending to expand your business it is important to note that legally, that is only possible if Mr. Martin has a clean record of at least three years and that includes court cases.7 As long as no one sues you in regards to the errors on the website, the

Goal Statement Management of Secure Information System Personal

Goal Management of Secure Information System - Personal Statement Example In addition to that, I completed my Associate program in Computer Studies in August 2014. These basic ingredients coupled with determination to excel and ability to learn under any condition will enable me to succeed in this program. I possess strong communication skills which will contribute to my success in this study program since I am well informed that it involves a lot of communication and interaction. Others skills that I have gained over time that will increase my level of competency in this program include excellent quantitative and analytical skills, data analysis, keen to details, ability to deliver excellent customer service, conceptual thinking skills and proper time management ability. I am a person who can work effectively with others so as to realize a common goal. I have great leadership skills which were made evident when I served as a youth coordinator for my community. Under that docket, I handled a number of duties such as meeting the needs of the youths by initiative a number of programs that favored them, initiating formation of youth organizations, creating a platform through which youths from various parts of the world can interact and network, initiating recreational activities for the youth among other activities. I am a self-motivated person who is guided by set principles pertaining any program or institution that I am based in. I have had a number of work experiences which are closely related to the program that I am applying for. I am currently working as an IT specialist by providing second level support for the Information Technology help desk. I have also worked under department IT support in which I handle various issues affecting IT customers and clients. That position exposed me to handling very challenging clients thus being able to strengthen my customer relation skills.

Analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Analysis - Case Study Example The top two occupations that offer the most job openings are postsecondary and elementary teachers with 892,000 and 587,000 job openings respectively. Middle school teachers and secondary school teachers held the 4th and 6th position in terms of job growth. The career with the least job openings is physical therapist at 72,000 jobs openings. Other than teaching positions five careers that have a good outlook for the period 2004-2014 are accounting, software engineers, physicians, lawyers, and managerial analysis. During this period the US economy will generate 486,000 jobs in accounting and 268,000 software engineer jobs. The primary reason people attend college is go obtain an education in order to find a job. The information provided on figure 6-2 is very valuable for college students because it provides them with data than can be used to make a change in their curriculums. It is not a wise investment to study a profession for which availability of jobs is limited. The chart was very useful, but it only provided data for 20 professions and there are hundreds of different occupations that require a college degree which were not mentioned in the

Explain some of the reasons for the increase in family diversity over Essay

Explain some of the reasons for the increase in family diversity over the last 30 years - Essay Example However, family is considered to be the most important because it is the most significant institution for primary socialization of the young and to provide support and security to the members of the family. With time it has been claimed by many sociologists that the institution of the family is in decline due to the changes which are occurring in our surroundings. (Giddens,2005) There have been many changes in the family over the years. There has been a decline in marriage followed by an increase in cohabitation and lone parent families. The loss of functions supported by the weakening of extended kinship links have resulted in declining family sizes. It is these changes that have caused increasing diversity in the family structures and these changes will be discussed in detail. Family is said to have lost most of its functions. Functionalist as a perspective, specialize in explaining the functions of all social institutions. Parsons and other functionalists argue that with the comin g of industrialization the functions of the family have reduced and have been taken over by other institutions through the coming of the welfare state. This has resulted in structural differentiation of the functions (Browne, 2006, pg 43). According to Parsons Family now have two basic functions: primary socialization of the young and the stabilization of the adult personalities. Initially family was a unit of production as well as a place which was not only responsible for the primary socialization of the young but also involved in their health and education aspects. However, with the coming of the welfare state health and education are no longer the primary functions of the family. Now family is more a unit of consumption rather than a unit of production. (Giddens, 2005) The next visible change in the family is the weakening of the link with the extended kin. As time has progressed after industrialization there has arrived a need of a more geographically mobile workforce. This has resulted in different members of the extended family to go for work to different places. People have become richer now and the standard of living has improved due to the existence of the welfare state. The society has now transformed into a meritocratic one where the name and background is no longer important and this result in the weakening of the ties of the extended family. (Browne, 2006) There is an argument put forward by sociologists that the extended family does exist in the modern society. It has just evolved into a different shape. A very good example will be the Asian community in Britain (Browne, 2006, pg 50). The Asians are usually found living close to each other where there might be separate nuclear families living in the same street or neighborhood, and in regular contact with each other. Such examples have been visible in many areas and giving rise to the concept of modified extended families. This means that even though the children are living away from their paren ts they are in contact with their kin. It can be said the kin are a means of support and this type of family is common in many parts of the world. Julia Brannen (2003) argues that now we are living in the age of the beanpole family. As the expected lives of people are increasing and they are living longer this is giving rise to a family where there are four

The Significance Of The GI BILL Personal Statement

The Significance Of The GI BILL - Personal Statement Example College and home ownership were, prior to the G.I. Bill, thought of as unreachable by those who were not considered privileged in society. Higher education such as university was seen as a privilege reserved for the children of the upper echelon of America. The tuition assistance and the living stipend from the G.I. Bill changed that in short order and veterans flooded classrooms across the United States. With the gift of education, a higher standard and quality of life were guaranteed for many, as well as jobs with better pay and more stability. Low-interest home loans also contributed as returning veterans saw the once unreachable dream of home ownership finally within their grasp due to federally backed funding. They were able to move from apartments in the city to houses in quickly-growing suburbs, which meant expansion for cities and towns around the United States. This, in combination with their educational assistance, provided even greater stability to those that had served th eir country. The ripple effect of better education leading to better jobs with more pay, thus more money to spend and contribute to the economy, was felt throughout the nation in the years after World War II and made the G.I Bill significantly not only to each and every veteran that received its assistance but to the country as a whole. Other benefits were offered in the G.I. Bill that made a world of difference to returning veterans. Alongside home loans, veterans could apply for guaranteed business loans.

Apple, Microsoft and Google & Management Information Systems Case Study

Apple, Microsoft and Google & Management Information Systems - Case Study Example This paper highlights that Apple enjoys a positive reputation for the quality of its products. As such, the company relies on the positive reputation to sell its other related products. The company manufactures high-quality smartphones and computers. The products use a unique operating system. Such is an effective strategy that limits the company’s customers to the products of the company. Google, on the other hand, employs diversification as its key marketing strategy. The company manufactures various products and applications all of which enjoy relative market shares. The cumulative effect of the diversification safeguards the company’s profitability. Microsoft is the current leader in the PC world. The company scooped the market from inception by creating a unique product that lacked in the society. As such, it remained to enjoy the benefits of such an iconic invention. The company has numerous operating systems coupled with equally vital programs. Additionally, the company bought Nokia in its attempt to diversify its market thus enjoys a share of the fast-growing smartphone market. The strategies employed by each of the three companies are effective since they ensure that the companies enjoy their relative profitability. As explained earlier, each of the three companies continues to struggle for the mobile computing market. This portrays the importance of the market. Mobile computing is the future of the industry. The use of portable devises if the future of the industry as users continue to demand both convenience and mobility. Google continues to manufacture applications to suit the interface of the various handheld devices. The company enjoys increased profitability owing to the efficiency of its products such as the google.com search engine among many others. Apple has amon g the largest share of the market.  

Legitimacy Theory Essay Example for Free

Legitimacy Theory Essay â€Å"Legitimacy is a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions† (Suchman, 1995, p. 574, emphasis in original) Legitimacy theory has become one of the most cited theories within the social and environmental accounting area. Yet there remains deep scepticism amongst many researchers that it offers any real insight into the voluntary disclosures of corporations. This brief paper outlines responses to two specific concerns identified in the literature. It will eventually form part of a much larger project addressing a range of issues associated with legitimacy theory. First, the paper brings some of the more recent developments in the management and ethical literature on legitimacy and corporations to the accounting table. Second, there are contributions to the theory that have already been made by accounting researchers that are yet to be fully recognised. The author believes that legitimacy theory does offer a powerful mechanism for understanding voluntary social and environmental disclosures made by corporations, and that this understanding would provide a vehicle for engaging in critical public debate. The problem for legitimacy theory in contributing to our understanding of accounting disclosure specifically, and as a theory in general, is that the term has on occasion been used fairly loosely. This is not a problem of the theory itself, and the observation could be equally applied to a range of theories in a range of disciplines (see for example Caudill (1997) on the abuse of Evolutionary Theory). Failure to adequately specify the theory has been identified by Suchman (1995, p. 572, emphasis in original), who observed that â€Å"Many researchers employ the term legitimacy, but few define it†. Hybels (1995, p. 241) comments that â€Å"As the tradesmen [sic] of social science have groped to build elaborate theoretical structures with which to shelter their careers and  disciplines, legitimation has been a blind man’s hammer.† This paper begins to address these issues. Not One Theory but Two (at least) An important issue which needs to be acknowledged is that there are in fact two major classes of legitimacy theory. These are graphically presented in Figure 1 below. The ‘macro-theory’ of legitimation, known as Institutional Legitimacy Theory, deals with how organisational structures as a whole (capitalism for example, or government) have gained acceptance from society at large. â€Å"Within this tradition, legitimacy and institutionalization are virtually synonymous. Both phenomena empower organizations primarily by making them seem natural and meaningful† (Suchman, 1995, p. 576, emphasis in original). In terms of accounting research, given the time frames involved and questions generally being considered, the current business environment, including the capitalist structure, democratic government, etc. are generally taken as a given, a static context within which the research is situated. This assumption would, however, need to be carefully considered for a longitudinal study of any significant length. Figure 1: Layers of Legitimacy Theory INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL GOVERNMENT RELIGION SOCIETY CAPITALISM ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL (IN THIS CASE: COMPANY LTD BY SHARE) Establishment Defence Extension Maintenance From the Moral to the Measurable One layer down from the Institutional Level is what in Figure 1 is called the â€Å"Organisational Level† (sometimes referred to as Strategic Legitimacy Theory). â€Å"Underlying organizational legitimacy is a process, legitimation, by which an organization seeks approval (or avoidance of sanction) from groups in society† (Kaplan and Ruland, 1991, p. 370). It is from this level  that most accounting research tends to draw its understanding of legitimacy. Mathews (1993, p. 350) provides a good definition of legitimacy at this level: Organisations seek to establish congruence between the social values associated with or implied by their activities and the norms of acceptable behaviour in the larger social system in which they are a part. In so far as these two value systems are congruent we can speak of organisational legitimacy. When an actual or potential disparity exists between the two value systems there will exist a threat to organisational legitimacy. At its simplest, within the Organisational view â€Å"legitimacy [is] an operational resource that organizations extract often competitively from their cultural environments and that they employ in pursuit of their goals† (Suchman, 1995, p. 575 6, emphasis in original). Legitimacy, just like money, is a resource a business requires in order to operate. Certain actions and events increase that legitimacy, and others decrease it. Low legitimacy will have particularly dire consequences for an organisation, which could ultimately lead to the forfeiture of their right to operate. Although we can describe a firm as being legitimate, and conceive of ‘amounts’ of legitimacy, it becomes a very subjective exercise to try and directly measure legitimacy. Although it has concrete consequences, legitimacy itself is an abstract concept, given reality by multiple actors in the social environment. For a researcher to try and directly establish, or even rank, the legitimacy of various organisations would seem to be a necessarily subjective undertaking, preferencing the researcher’s own views. As Hybels (1995, p. 243) argues, â€Å"I reject this view because it is based on a conflation of the roles of observer and participant in social science†. As an alternative, rather than trying to subjectively measure a firm’s legitimacy directly it can instead be inferred from the fact that being legitimate â€Å"enables organizations to attract resources necessary for survival (e.g., scarce materials, patronage, political approval)† (Hearit, 1995, p. 2). Hybels (1995, p. 243) develops this in some detail: Legitimacy often has been conceptualized as simply one of many resources that organizations must obtain from their environments. But rather than viewing legitimacy as something that is exchanged among institutions, legitimacy is better conceived as both part of the context for exchange and  a by-product of exchange. Legitimacy itself has no material form. It exists only as a symbolic representation of the collective evaluation of an institution, as evidenced to both observers and participants perhaps most convincingly by the flow of resources. †¦ resources must have symbolic import to function as value in social exchange. But legitimacy is a higher-order representation of that symbolism – a representation of representations. Hybels (1995, p. 243) argues that good models in legitimacy theory must examine the relevant stakeholders, and how â€Å"Each influences the flow of resources crucial to the organizations’ establishment, growth, and survival, either through direct control or by the communication of good will†. He identifies (p. 244) four critical organisational stakeholders, each of which control a number of resources. These are summarised in Table 1 below. Table 1: Critical Organisational Stakeholder STAKEHOLDER RESOURCES CONTROLLED Contracts, grants, legislation, regulation, tax (Note that the (1) The state last three of these could be either a ‘negative’ or ‘positive’ depending on the implementation) (2) The public (3) The financial community (4) The media Few ‘direct resources’; however, can substantially influence the decisions of stakeholders (2) (3) (if not (1)) Patronage (as customer), support (as community interest), labour Investment The last of these has received considerable attention. The power of the media has been noted by a number of researchers, including Patten (2002, p. 153), who states â€Å"that while increased media attention can certainly lead to the potential for increased pressures from any of the three sources [dissatisfaction of public; new or proposed political action; increased regulatory oversight], increases in pressure can  also arise, particularly with respect to regulatory oversight.† See also Deegan et al. (2000, 2002). Companies try to manage their legitimacy because it â€Å"helps to ensure the continued inflow of capital, labour and customers necessary for viability†¦ It also forestalls regulatory activities by the state that might occur in the absence of legitimacy and pre-empts product boycotts or other disruptive actions by external parties By mitigating these potential problems, organizational legitimacy provides managers with a degree of autonomy to decide how and where business will be conducted† (Neu  et al., 1998, p. 265). Researchers need to move away from trying to directly assess legitimacy, and instead focus on measuring it in terms of the resources relevant stakeholders provide. â€Å"Rather than engage in the further development of entirely abstract constructions of the legitimation process†¦ researchers should investigate the flow of resources from organizational constituencies as well as the pattern and content of communications† (Hybels, 1995, p. 244). But Wait†¦ There’s More As shown in Figure 1 Organisational Legitimacy Theory suggests that a firm may be in one of four phases with regard to its legitimacy. These phases are outlined below, some examples of industries/firms that might be considered to be operating in each of these phases are included (further research needs to be undertaken in this area). Establishing Legitimacy. (E.g. Stem Cell based bio-tech). This first phase represents the early stages of a firm’s development and tends to revolve around issues of competence, particularly financial, but the organisation must be aware of â€Å"socially constructed standards of quality and desirability as well as perform in accordance with accepted standards of professionalism† (Hearit, 1995, p. 2). Maintaining Legitimacy. (The majority of organisations). This is the phase that most firms would generally expect to be operating in, where their â€Å"activities include: (1) ongoing role performance and symbolic assurances that all is well, and (2) attempts to anticipate and prevent or forestall potential challenges to legitimacy† (Ashford and Gibbs, 1990, p. 183). However the maintenance of legitimacy is not as easy as it may at first appear. Legitimacy is a dynamic construct. â€Å"Community expectations are not considered static, but rather, change across time thereby requiring organisations to be responsive to the environment in which they operate. An organisation could, accepting this view, lose its legitimacy even if it has not changed its activities from activities which were previously deemed acceptable (legitimate)† (Deegan et al., 2002, p. 319 20). Extending Legitimacy. (E.g. Alternative Health Providers). There may come a point where an organisation enters new markets or changes the way it relates to its current market. This can give rise to a need to extend  legitimacy which is â€Å"apt to be intense and proactive as management attempts to win the confidence and support of wary potential constituents† (Ashford and Gibbs, 1990, p. 180). Defending Legitimacy. (E.g. Uranium Mining). Legitimacy may be threatened by an incident (internal or external), and therefore require defence. â€Å"Legitimation activities tend to be intense and reactive as management attempts to counter the threat† (Ashford and Gibbs, 1990, p. 183). Even barring a major incident it is likely in the Western Capitalist system that almost every corporation will regularly need to defend its legitimacy, by the mere fact that â€Å"corporations must fulfil both a competence and community requirement to realize legitimacy†¦ Satisfaction of stockholder interests often occurs at the expense of community concerns (e.g., the despoiling of the environment, the use of labour) while, conversely, responsibility to the larger community often occurs at the expense of the stockholder† (Hearit, 1995, p. 3). It is this last phase that has tended to be the main focus of accounting researchers. It also provides us with the clearest opportunity to examine the crucial link between legitimacy and resources. Lindblom (1994), a key paper cited by many Social and Environmental Accounting researchers, also seems relevant specifically to this phase only. An example of work in this area is Deegan et al.’s (2000) study of five major incidents (including the Exxon Valdez oil spill and the Bhopal Disaster) which provided a context to examine the annual reports of related (in industrial terms) Australian firms to see if there had been a significant change in their social or environmental reporting. They concluded: The results of this study are consistent with legitimacy theory and show that companies do appear to change their disclosure policies around the time of major company and industry related social events. †¦ These results highlight the strategic nature of voluntary social disclosures and are consistent with a view that management considers that annual report social disclosures are a useful device to reduce the effects upon a corporation of events that are perceived to be unfavourable to a corporation’s image (Deegan et al., 2000, p. 127). The Diagnosis Needs Refinement This is where the traditional legitimacy model stops. However my own  research, into the tobacco industry, Tilling (2004), and that of other researchers, including experimental research undertaken by O’Donovan (2002), suggest a further development of the Organisational Legitimacy Level, as depicted in Figure 2 below. Added to the model is the possibility that a firm may not successfully (or may be unable to) defend the threat to its legitimacy and actually start to lose legitimacy. Figure 2: Refinement of the Organisational Level of Legitimacy Theory Establishment Loss Defence Disestablishment Extension Maintenance In this model the defence phase is usually entered by an organisation after some form of one-off ‘incident’ or ‘accident’ which threatens its legitimacy. This phase could be characterised as being ‘acute’, it can be serious, some times even fatal, but usually, with proper management, the organisation can maintain, or at least recover, its legitimacy. However should there be an ongoing series of events, indicative of a systemic issue, e.g. the nuclear power industry, or a single event with permanent consequences which cannot be effectively managed, e.g. realisation that the organisation’s product is not safe such as the tobacco industry, an organisation is likely to have its legitimacy eroded over a period of time (the ‘loss’ phase), which can be characterised as ‘chronic’. The issue can be difficult to manage, and generally leads to declining legitimacy, however the loss may be managed and slowed over a long period of time, or significant change could lead to reestablishment of legitimacy. The ‘loss’ phase is most likely to be preceded by sustained media and NGO scrutiny, and accompanied by increasing government regulation, monitoring and possibly taxation. Within this phase there are likely to be periods where the company will increase its voluntary social and environmental disclosure in an effort to meet specific threats (such as to postpone or defeat proposed regulations) or to communicate systemic corporate change  (similar to the defence phase). However, with each new restriction average total disclosure can be expected to decrease. This idea is alluded to by O’Donovan (2002) who argues, based on experimental evidence, that the lower the perceived legitimacy of the organisation, the less likely it is to bother providing social and environmental disclosure. Watch This Space Legitimacy theory offers researchers, and the wider public, a way to critically unpack corporate disclosures. However the understanding and study of the theory must become more sophisticated, drawing on developments both within the accounting literature and beyond. Only then will the full potential of legitimacy theory for examining a wide range of disclosures be fully realised. Areas that would provide useful insights include at the moment the asbestos industry (as it goes through the disestablisment phase), brothels (as they become much more legitimate within the Australian context), and the forestry industry (as it tries to defend its legitimacy), to name but a few. The knowledge gained will then be used to provide better and more useful information to inform decision making by stakeholders. In this way society is empowered to have greater control and oversight over the way resources are allocated. References: Ashford, B. E. and B. W. Gibbs (1990) â€Å"The Double-Edge of Organizational Legitimation†, Organization Science, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 177 194. Caudill, E. (1997) Darwinian Myths: The Legends and Misuses of a Theory, Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press. Deegan, C., M. Rankin and J. Tobin (2002) â€Å"An Examination of the Corporate Social and Environmental Disclosures of BHP from 1983-1997: A Test of Legitimacy Theory†, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 312 343. Deegan, C., M. Rankin and P. Voght (2000) â€Å"Firms’ Disclosure Reactions to Major Social Incidents: Australian Evidence†, Accounting Forum, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 101 130. Hearit, K. M. (1995) â€Å"‘Mistakes Were Made’: Organizations, Apologia, and Crises of Social Legitimacy†, Communication Studies, Vol. 46, No. 1-2, pp. 1 17. Hybels, R. C. (1995) â€Å"On Legitimacy, Legitimation, and Organizations: A Critical Review and Integrative Theoretical Model†, Academy of Management  Journal, Special Issue: Best Papers Proceedings, 1995, pp. 241 245. Kaplan, S. E. and R. G. Ruland (1991) â€Å"Positive Theory, Rationality and Accounting Regulation†, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 361 374. Lindblom, C. K. (1994), â€Å"The Implications of Organizational Legitimacy for Corporate Social Performance and Disclosure†, Critical Perspectives on Accounting Conference, New York. Mathews, M. R. (1993) Socially Responsible Accounting, UK, Chapman Hall. Neu, D., H. Warsame and K. Pedwell (1998) â€Å"Managing Public Impressions: Environmental Disclosures in Annual Reports†, Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 265 282. O’Donovan, G. (2002) â€Å"Environmental Disclosures in the Annual Report: Extending the Applicability and Predictive Power of Legitimacy Theory†, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 344 371. Patten, D. M. (2002) â€Å"Media Exposure, Public Policy Pressure, and Environmental Disclosure: An Examination of the Impact of Tri Data Availability†, Accounting Forum, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 152 171. Suchman, M. C. (1995) â€Å"Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches†, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 571 610. Tilling, M. (2004), â€Å"Communication at the Edge: Voluntary Social and Environmental Reporting in the Annual Report of a Legitimacy Threatened Corporation†. APIRA Conference Proceedings, Singapore, July.

Apple lnc

Apple lnc Apple lnc, is an American multinational corporation that designs and manufactures consumer electronics and computer products. The companys well-known products include the Macintosh computers, the IPod and the iPhone. This company was established in Cupertino, California on April 1, 1976. On January, 1977, the company had been incorporated as the name called Apple Computer, lnc. for over 30 years. The company have decided to change their companys name to Apple lnc.. Apple lnc. operates more than 250 retail shops in nine countries and an online store. It has about 35,000 employees in the whole world and had worldwide annual sales of $32.48 billion dollars at the end of the year 2008. (Seekingalpha.com,2009) According to the research in 2009, Apple lnc. has a high market share for about 7.96%. (www.apple.com ,2009) 1.2 Theory Product: Business must make sure that their products are meeting the needs of their customers. Their product must be suitable for their customers. (HALL,D, et al, P75) Price: The pricing policy that a business chooses is often a reflection of the market at which it is aiming. Prices will not always be set at the level which will maximize sales or short-run profits. (HALL,D, et al, P75) Promotion: There is a number of promotional methods a business can use including above the line promotions. (HALL,D, et al, P75) Place: This refers to the means by which the product will be distributed to the consumer. (HALL,D, et al, P75) Market segmentation: Breaking down a market into sub-groups with similar characteristics is known as Market Segmentation. (HALL,D, et al, P75) 1.3 Aims Fortunately, the report will recommend the theory of Marketing and Business. Thirdly, the next purpose of this report is to try to explain one of the ads for IPod.(Figure 1) Then, this report is going to investigate why the Ads has been product like its style and type. According to this report, the writer is going to state how this Ad work in the market. Finally, the final goal is to predict the future development of Apple lnc. 3. Findings 3.1 Color First of all, it is clear that there are many different background colors in IPods ads, such as pink, red, blue and yellow. It is a random color for the background in all of the IPods ads and the color will never changeless. On the basis of this ad, the background color is pink, a color which is very romantic. 3.2 Spokesman IPods ads never use the same spokesman. The person in the ads are always in black whether they are men, women or children. In this ad, there is a pretty girl in the ad who is in black and this become another selling point. The consumer will never find out who the man or woman is because it is in black. 3.3 Production This is an ad for IPod nano, which is one of the most important product in Apple lnc. IPod nano is a MP3 which is very small and fashion. Thus, in their ads it is always a white IPod nano in the spokesmans hands or pockets. Therefore, black and white become a contrast color so that it can be easy to see that the colors of IPod and person are completely different from each other. Consumers can see different person with different IPod nano, but not other MP3 or MP4. 3.4 Catchphrase The catchphrase for this ad is, The best just got better. 3.5 Price According to the internet, the price of IPod nano is higher than other MP3s. For an 8GB IPod nano, it will cost the consumers $149 dollars or more than 1000 yuan and 16GB IPod attend to a price at $179.00 dollars.(APPLE STORE, US) 4. Discussion 4.1 Color According to Color Wheel Pro See Color Theory in Action, Red is the color of fire and blood, so it is associated with energy, strength, power, determination as well as passion desire and love. Red is a very emotionally intense color. It enhances human metabolism, increases respiration rate, and raises blood pressure. Red also brings text and images to the foreground. Pink is a color which is an embranchment of red, it means signifies romance, love, and friendship which is denotes feminine qualities and passiveness. (Color Wheel Pro) This ads background color is pink so that consumers can notice that this production is filled with energy and power which is very suitable for the youth. Contributed to there are many kinds of background color, the place can change to every kind of places. Every color represents a place, which means that the consumer can use the IPod nano anywhere and anytime they like. 4.2 Spokesman Spokesman, definition from Ansewers.com, Spokesman is a man who speaks on behalf of another or others. (Spokesman, Dictionary) Consumers can not recognize the spokesman in this ad because she is in black. The company does not care about whether the spokesman is famous or not because their propagandistic main point is their production, IPod. The black color stand for every kinds of person can use IPod. There are no circumscriptions whether the consumers are old or young, boy or girl. It means that everyone can use IPod anyplace. 4.3 Marketing mix 4.3.1 Price According to Business Studies (Hall, D et al), Price will not always be set at the level which will maximize sales or short-run profits. It means that IPod should have different of prices level for the consumers to buy. The price can not be the same because every consumer has their own demand. The demand will decrease if the price never changes or the product is always the same as before. Compare with other MP3s, IPods price is higher than other products. According to store.apple.com, for an 8GB IPod nano, it will cost you $149 dollars and 16GB IPod attend to a price at $179.00 dollars.(APPLE STORE, US) The price urge IPod to be the best brand in MP3. Relative to other MP3s in China, it can be easy seen that the price is very high so that it become valuable production in China. 4.3.2 Place According to Business Studies (Hall ,D et al), Place refers to the means by which the product will be distributed to the consumer. The main idea in this Ad depend on consumers is able to use IPod nano everywhere. The size and weight become the superiority of IPod which is better than any other MP3. The Ad show this idea from the place where the consumers put their IPod in. 4.3.3 Promotion According to Business Studies (Hall ,D et al), there is a number of promotional methods a business can use including above the line promotions. The Apple lnc. dose the same work on promotion as other companies. Sometimes they hold sales promotion in retail space, therefore, it become a chance to get sponsorship for their advertising. Sale promotion is a function which the consumers prefer to attend because they will buy products in low price. Sales at the expense of profits is a good way to make profits. 4.4 Catchphrase The catchphrase for this ad is, The best just got better. This is a sentence which is short but deep thinking. The word best and better can be easily change in to anything as the company like. The consumers become able to put more interest in the product which the company what to sell. 5. Recommendations To summarize, This Ad is suitable for IPod because of its exquisite idea. Based on the above discussion, IPod will become the youths first choice because its fashion and superiority. The fact have proved that Ipod is now the best mp3 for the youth. Never theless, if the company do not compare with others, its lifecycle will be end. Apple lnc. is reviving by brought up new products and changing target market. From different kinds of Ipods, it definitely shows that expand target market is very necessary for every company. The Ad has play an important role in attracting consumers and increasing market share. Because of its superiority Ad, IPod has become one of the best MP3 in the world. However, the developing market are never fully explored in a short period of time, it is still a good chance for Apple lnc. to expand their company size and making good advertisement might be a good choice. In a word, there is a good way for all the company to expand themselves and the target market. 6. References http://seekingalpha.com/article/115797-apple-inc-f1q09-qtr-end-12-27-08-earnings-call-transcript?source=front_page_transcriptspage=-1 (access at 2009) http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/10/21results.html (access at 2009) http://baike.baidu.com/view/14874.htm (access at 2009) http://store.apple.com/us/browse/home/shop_ipod/family/ipod_nano?mco=MTAyNTQzMjM (access at 2009) http://www.answers.com/topic/spokesman (access at 2009) Hall, D., R, Jones, C. Raffo, A. Anderton (2008 4th p75), publication: British Library Cataloguing

Effects of Flying on Cavities

Effects of Flying on Cavities Aviation dentistry – New Horizon, New Challenge Abstract: After the innovations in aviation at the beginning of the 20th century, many in -flight pathologic and physiologic conditions were reported. Changing atmospheric pressure, especially if it is rapid, can cause discomfort and damage to the oral cavities and maxillofacial areas unless the pressure within these cavities containing gas is able to equilibrate with the external air pressure. Out of these conditions- barodontalgia (pain due to gas entrapment) and barotrauma (pressure induced tooth fracture, restoration and tooth fracture) was most frequently seen to occur. Due to partial pressurisation of aeroplanes cabins and improvement in dental techniques and oral health awareness, prevalence of flight-related oral manifestations has declined. It is important for the dental practioners to be familiar with these facts and not to neglect dental education with respect to aviation. Aircrew patients as well as air passengers often make it challenging for the dentist to treat several flight-re lated conditions. Correct diagnosis should be made before these conditions lead to serious complications. With thorough practice and experience, the aircrew are now able to avoid, or treat, these pressure related problems. Keywords:Â  Barodontalgia, Barotrauma, Aviation Dentistry. INTRODUCTION It is a known fact that at higher altitudes there is a reduction in air density and air pressure.The decrease in pressure is that at 18,000ft, air pressure is half that of that at sea level and at 33,000 ft. it is quarter as seen at sea level.1 This reduction in air pressure has a many negative effects on aviators. When an aircraft is at a high altitude, atmospheric pressure will be too low but inside aircraft pressure is maintained such that it is comfortable for crew and passengers. The pressure and temperature regulation in aircraft is done by means of aircycle machines and outflow valves.2 During flight, the aircrew is responsible for the lives of the aircrew members and passengers for completing the flight successfully. Any problem within the flight could lead to failures in the flight’s safety. 3 Dental practice and education is evolving with technological advancements. The focus is now on prevention. With the advanced expansion in the airlines industry with air travel now being the chief mode of transport, special attention must be paid towards the crew members and air travellers.4 Aviation dentistry primarily deals with the oral and dental health status of the aviators. It deals with the diagnosis, principles of prevention and treatment, disorders or conditions which are related to the oral cavity and maxillofacial area and their impact on those who travel in such an environment where there is change in pressure than that of the normal atmospheric pressure.5 Several areas of the body normally contain gas which includes the lungs and air-passages, the sinuses of the face, the stomach and bowel, and the middle ear cavity. Gas may be present in other areas of the body under abnormal circumstances such as the gas produced when a tooth abscess forms, or sometimes under a tooth’s filling. 2 A person in flight is subjected to reduced air pressure.Here, the gas present within the body will expand. This is not a problem if the gas communicates freely with the outside (as with the mouth, nose, and to a degree the sinuses and the middle ear cavity). The gas merely expands and escapes to the outside atmosphere. But if the gas doesn’t communicate freely with the outside, its expansion will cause a build-up in pressure on the cavity walls causing discomfort .It can even impair the function of the organ involved .6 Large changes in altitude can cause toothache (Barodontalgia = pressure-tooth-pain). The reason this occurs is either the presence of small pockets of gas in deep (usually unlined) fillings, or collections of gas in areas of decay, gum inflammation, or root abscesses where the pain can be quite severe.7 Due to infrequent meals, the aircrew members may suffer some gastro- intestinal problems too.8 With practice and experience aircrew are able to avoid, or treat, these pressure related problems .5 We as dentists should prevent the creation of in-flight hazards when we treat aircrew members and frequent flyers. BAROTRAUMA Barotrauma refers to injury sustained from failure to equalize the pressure of an air-containing space with that of the surrounding environment. The most common examples of barotrauma occur in air travel, scuba diving , hyperbaric oxygen therapy or exposure to shock waves from an explosion .9 It is a tissue injury seen due to changes in pressure, wherein the gas compresses or expands which is present in various hard or soft body structures. In cases where there is increased pressure outside the body, this pressure is equally transmitted throughout the blood and body tissues, which do not compress because they are composed mainly of liquid. However, gases (such as the air inside the lungs, sinuses, or middle ears) compress or expand as outside pressure increases or decreases causing pain, numbness and damage to the involved tissue. 5,10 Barotrauma of non-dental origin Barotrauma can commonly affect the ears which is also called aero-otitis or Barotitis .11 It is observed that plane landing leads to extreme pain in the ear (the pressure change can create a vacuum in the middle ear that pulls the eardrum inward causing pain), dizziness (vertigo), bleeding or fluid coming from the ear (due to a ruptured eardrum) and ultimately hearing loss.12, 13 Risk of barotrauma is increased by conditions that prevent air from freely flowing between spaces, such as sinus congestion or blockage of Eustachian tube or any other upper respiratory tract infection.14 It may impair the balancing function of the Eustachian tube, thus predisposing the individual to barotrauma. However, pulmonary barotrauma is the most serious amongst the other types of barotrauma. Pulmonary barotrauma may cause shortness of breath, chest pain, and feeling of fullness in the chest, pain that radiates to the neck and/or shoulders, light-headedness, seizure or coma. Potential complications can include pneumothorax and stroke. Measures that can help prevent pulmonary barotrauma include ascending slowly and breathing during ascent .15 High altitudes can also cause acute or chronic inflammation of one or more of the paranasal sinuses, mainly the frontal sinus . This is produced by the development of a pressure difference (usually negative) between the air in the sinus cavity and that of the surrounding atmosphere .This condition is termed as Barosinusitis, Sinus barotrauma, Aerosinusitis or Sinus squeeze .14 Normally, there is no air pressure differential between the sinuses and the outside environment. Barosinusitis can occur and be manifested as toothache (indirect barodontalgia)16. Vacuum created inside the sinus may also seem to cause damage to the ethmoid cell mucosa which may trigger the ethmoid nerves (branches of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve that innervate the mucosa on the inner surface of the sinus).This may lead to orbital and/or peri-orbital headache. 17 To prevent the above risks from occurring, it’s better to postpone the flight for people suffering from a cold or congestion . Using a decongestant could help in some cases. To relieve the pressure during take-off and landing sucking candy, chewing gum, yawning or breathing with the mouth open can be beneficial .Usage of filtered earplugs can help to slowly equalize the air pressure against the eardrum. Since one does not swallow enough during sleep, keeping awake during descent can also prove helpful. Barotrauma of dental origin BARODONTALGIA Barodontalgia is an oral (dental or nondental) pain caused by a change in barometric pressure in an otherwise asymptomatic organ. Gases are confined within the closed spaces due to which it is unable to contract to adjust the internal pressure. Individuals experience pain which may be sharp or squeezing in nature. Whether the pain occurs during ascent or descent depends entirely on the related pathology. 5 Generally, pain on ascent is related to vital pulp disease (i.e., pulpitis) and pain on descent to pulp necrosis or facial barotrauma .Pain related to periapical disease can appear during ascent as well as descent.9 The pain usually ceases when returning to onset level or ground atmospheric level but can last longer if caused by periapical disease or facial barotrauma. Barodontalgia is a symptom rather than a pathologic condition itself. In most cases, it is an exacerbation of pre-existing subclinical oral disease.18 Several suggestions to explain the pathogenesis of barodontalgia were given. Strohaver 19 in 1972 advocated the differentiation of into direct and indirect types. In direct barodontalgia, reduced atmospheric pressure leads to direct effect on the affected tooth, whereas in the indirect type, dental pain is due to the stimulation of the superior alveolar nerves at the time of maxillary barosinusitis. Direct barodontalgia is characterised by moderate to severe pain, which usually develops during take-off. It is well localized and the patient can identify the involved tooth whereas indirect barodontalgia is a dull, poorly defined pain that generally involves the posterior maxillary teeth and develops during landing. Exposure to altered atmospheric pressure is obviously a significant factor resulting in pain production in barodontalgia with disease of the pulp as one of the probable cause. Ferjentsik et al 20 stated that normal pulp tissue would not produce pressure associated pain, regardless of whether restorations or caries were present. However, Hodges 21 has reported that dental pain could be produced in apparently healthy teeth when the atmospheric pressure was increased. Experimental research indicates that barodontalgia may depend on an increased pulpal pressure induced by pressure variations in the permeability of the dentinal tubules. Kollmann W (1933) said that barodontalgia could be due to expansion of trapped air bubbles under a restoration or against dentin that activates the pain receptors. 22 It could also be due to stimulation of nerve endings in an inflamed pulp or stimulation of nociceptors in the maxillary sinus with referred pain to the teeth. BAROMETRIC TOOTH EXPLOSION It was reported that teeth with pre-existing leaked restoration or remaining/recurrent caries lesions underneath restoration led to tooth explosion when exposed to changes in atmospheric pressure.23 This condition is known as Barometric tooth explosion, Barodontocrexis or Odontocrexis. Although the destructive potential of arrested or remaining carious lesions in daily life is minimal, it seems that these lesions may not be as asymptomatic or minimal in a pressure-changed environment. Calder and Ramsey 24 reported that all the damaged teeth either had poor quality of amalgam restorations with unfavourable clearance between the tooth and the amalgam or secondary caries under the restoration. Odontocrexis can potentially lead to severe pain, swallowing of the tooth fragments or even their aspiration. 25 Patients should be advised not to fly while having provisional restorations or temporary cement in their mouth. Leaky or faulty restorations should be diagnosed and replaced. Carious lesions should also be excavated and restored. Placement of cuspal coverage crowns could also be a preventive measure. PROSTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS Lyons et al. studied the retention of crowns to extracted teeth in environmental pressure changing conditions. The crowns cemented with glass-ionomer cement or zinc phosphate cement had reduced retention with the tooth. Crowns cemented with resin cement did not have reduced retention.26 This can be due to porosities incorporated at the time of manipulation of zinc phosphate cement and glass-ionomer cement. These microporosities expand and contract upon pressure changes leading to a weakened cement . 25 Microleakage was also detected in zinc phosphate and glass-ionomer cements after pressure changes , whereas no microleakage was detected in resin cement.27 Reduced barometric pressure can reduce the retention of full removable dentures (especially maxillary dentures) 28 Retention by osteointegrated dental implants is the best solution for edentulous fliers.4 RESTORATIVE DENTISTRY Pure oxygen inhalation may cause corrosion of dental amalgam restorations in cases due to increased percentage of oxygen.29 Differential thermal contraction in cases of low temperature of a high altitude environment is seen of amalgam materials as compared with tooth hard tissue. Harvey30 reported that cold temperature is unlikely the dominant mechanism underlying dental fracture. Excessive occlusal forces was also a factor in dental restoration dislodgement .Sognnaes, suggested that clenching or grinding of teeth was a causative factor for restorative failure.18 ENDODONTIC CONSIDERATIONS Although not evidence based, Rossi 31 contraindicated direct pulp capping in aircrew patients and recommended endodontic treatment in each case of suspected invasion to the pulp chamber in order to prevent sub-acute pulpitis or silent pulp necrosis and their potential barometric pressure-related consequences. Open unfilled root canals may cause leakage of the intracanal infected content to the periradicular tissues and subcutaneous emphysema . PERIODONTAL CONSIDERATIONS Decrease in salivation and dryness of mouth are few of the risk factors responsible for the development of caries lesions. Dryness of the mouth can be due to breathing of dry compressed gases in the aircraft. 32There is increased risk of periodontal diseases because of xerostomia. ORAL SURGERY When maxillary teeth are extracted, the dental surgeons should always rule out the existence of an oroantral communication as it can lead to sinusitis when exposed to a pressure changing environment .33 PREVENTION Caries excavations and restorations should be completed before airtravel. Leaky restorations should be replaced. During the restoration of a carious tooth, a thorough examination of the floor of the cavity should be done to rule out any penetration leading to the pulp chamber. In such cases a protective cavity liner should be applied (e.g. glass-ionomer cement) . During multi-visit endodontic treatment, the temporary restoration must be placed properly .When oroantral communication is diagnosed; referral to an oral surgeon for its closure is indicated.9 Cuspal coverage crowns could also be a preventive measure.Resin cements are preferred for cementation,as they give better retention. During flight, chewing gum or candy will increase salivation and prevent dryness in mouth. CONCLUSION There has been a tremendous increase in air travellers viz pilots, aircrew personnel, air passengers, flight attendants and leisure pilots. Special precautions must be taken during endodontic, restorative, prosthodontic and oral maxillo facial surgical treatments for the aircrew patients to prevent any kind of in -flight incapabilities leading to serious issues. Aviation dentistry is an emerging science which has been much neglected .With air travel gaining popularity, the in-flight dental hazards cannot be ignored anymore. The dental clinicians should take an initiative to raise awareness levels and sensitize the air travellers about this issue. The need of the hour is to promote diagnostic tools and treatment guidelines to the aviation industry to ensure wellness of air travellers.

The African-American Civil Rights Movement 1955-1958 Essay -- segregat

The civil rights movement in the United States was the start of a political and social conflict for African-Americans in the United States to gain their full rights in the country, and to have the same equality as white Americans. The civil rights movement was a challenge to segregation, the laws and ordinances that separated blacks and whites. This movement had the goal to end racial segregation against the black Americans of the United States. Many different acts and campaigns of civil resistance represented this movement. African-Americans and whites performed many forms of protest and civil disobedience including 'sit-ins', boycotts, marches and other nonviolent activities. Out of this movement, came many successful achievements such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the segment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which ‘restored and protected voting rights for African-Americans. But along with achievements, many outbreaks and controversies swept the South and caused casualties and the side track of acts of violence. Background After the American Civil War, three constitutional amendments passed that favored African-Americans. The Thirteenth Amendment of 1865, abolished slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment of 1868, secured the former slaves their rights as citizens. And the Fifteenth Amendment of 1870, gave African American males the right to vote in elections, where at the time only white males were able to vote in the United States. From the period 1877-1965, the United States went through a Reconstruction Era that tried to establish free labor and civil rights of freedmen in the South. Many whites living in the South did not like these changes and began to form their own movements to ... ...ber 1, 2013. http://www.lib.lsu.edu/special/exhibits/e-exhibits/boycott/background.html. Rosenblum, Thom. n.d. The Segregation of Topeka's Public School System, 1879-1951. Accessed November 1, 2013. http://www.nps.gov/brvb/historyculture/topekasegregation.htm. The Authentic History Center. 2012. The Civil Rights Movement: The Surge Forward 1954-1960. July 18. Accessed November 2 2013, 2013. http://www.authentichistory.com/1946-1960/8-civilrights/1954-1960/#top. Tsesis, Alexander. 2004. The Thirteenth Amendment and American Freedom. New York City: NYU Press. Walker, Anders. 2009. The Ghost of Jim Crow. New York: Oxford University Press. Williams, Juan. 2005. Brown v. Board of Education: It's Impact on Public Education. Brooklyn: Thurgood Marshall Scholarship Fund. Wright, Roberta Hughes. 1991. The Birth of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Southfield: Charro Press.

Congress of Vienna (1815) :: essays research papers

Congress of Vienna (1815) In September 1814 – June 1815, the leaders who vanquished Napoleon, European representatives, and those who believe they were in â€Å"high circles† gathered together to redraw territorial boundaries and fashion a lasting peace at the end of the Napoleonic wars after the downfall of Napoleon.  Dominated by four major victors – Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria set peace term with France in April.  signing a crucial document  legitimacy (territories should once more be placed under the control of the old ruling houses of the traditional order), and stability (balance power in Europe)  light penalty for France and restore it to 1789 boundaries and required France to pay.  abolish slave trade  the Holy alliance was formed to secure the Vienna settlement Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) In 1904, the Russian angered Japan by increasing it’s presence in China’s Northern Province of Manchuria. Eventually, the Japanese decided to attack the Russian to keep their power on the Asian Mainland and surprisingly, defeated them both on land and at sea. Eventually, Japanese became the dominant power in Manchuria. Second Reform Act (1867)  Caused by the people who are tired and want to gain to the political system  tired of the British government who sympathize with movement for national liberation abroad and parade British naval, and national pride.  started by the Conservative Party, under Benjamin Disraeli, demand for democratic reform  they passed the Reform Bill of 1867  doubled the electorate and gave the vote to the lower-middle class for the first time  gathered support from the working class by passing laws that limited working hours, established sanitary codes, created housing standards, and aided labor union. Alfred Dreyfus (1894) In 1894, A Jewish captain was falsely accused and convicted of betrayal and sent to solitary imprisonment on Devil’s Island in South America.  France people followed the news from time to time  3 years later, the proof of his innocence appeared. Yet, the high-ranking officers refused to open the cased.  Eventually, it divided the nation into two (Left and Right)  Republican, socialist, and intellectuals under Zola rallied for Drefus. Nationalist, conservative, monarchist, and anti-Semitic force supported the Army  in 1899, a second court-martial again convicted Dreyfus for evidence of another’s officer’s guilt.  The Republic pardoned him, but it took seven years to get his name fully acquainted  marked the battle over anti-semitism, but the victory became a victory for republicanism and anti-clericalism.  made them strong enough to separate church with state.

Brief Shao Lin Monk History :: essays research papers fc

A Short History of Shao Lin Monks and their Martial Arts   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The original Shao Lin temple was built in 495 A.D. by the ruling Bei Wei emperor for an Indian monk who came to China to preach Buddhism. The name Shao Lin derived from the fact that its original temple was located within a small forest on Shao Shi mountain. Shao came from the name of the mountain and Lin comes from the Chinese character that stands for forest. The origin of Shao Lin being its own sect of Buddhism dates back to 540 A.D. when and Indian Buddhist named Bodhidharma, Tamo in Chinese, traveled to China to see the ruling Bei Wei Emperor. At that time, the Emperor had started local Buddhist monks translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Chinese. The intent of this practice was geared towards allowing the general population to practice this religion. The Emperor believed that this act would lead to Nirvana, but Tamo disagreed. Tamo’s view on Buddhism was that you could not achieve your goal just through the good actions performed by others in you r name. Tamo then left to meet with the local Buddhist monks at Shao Lin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Originally Tamo was refused entrance to the temple because the monks thought he was just an upstart or foreign meddler. Rejected by the monks, Tamo went to a nearby cave and meditated until the monks recognized his religious prowess and admitted him to the temple. Legend has it that he bore a hole through one side of the cave with his constant gaze; in fact, the act that earned him his recognition is lost to history. When Tamo joined the monks, he observed that they were not in good physical condition. Most of their routine paralleled that of Irish monks of the middle ages, who spent hours each day hunched over tables where they transcribed handwritten texts. Consequently, the monks in Shao Lin lacked the physical and mental stamina needed to perform even the most basic of Buddhist meditation practices. Tamo then incorporated by teaching them moving exercises designed to both enhance the flow of ch’i and build strength. These sets, modified from Indian yoga& #8217;s such as hatha and raja and were based on the movements of the 18 main animals in Indo-Chinese wilderness, were the beginning of Shao Lin martial arts known as gung fu. The Shao Lin temple was in a very secluded area where bandits traveled and wild animals were an occasional problem, so the martial side of the temple probably started out to fulfill self-defense needs.

Ethanol Production from Banana Peels Essay

Abstract: This study entitled â€Å"Ethanol Production from Waste Banana Peelings† aims to produce an alternative way in producing energy. Production of green energy from waste material has played an important role in recent days due to the depletion of non-renewable energy resources. Ethyl alcohol commonly called as Ethanol, is found useful widely as an alternative fuel for engines. In view of the growing demand of the ethanol, search of an alternative source for its production has also been increased. Banana is one of the most familar and widely used fruit. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, India is the largest banana producing nation. Many items like banana chips, juice, banana cue are made from banana. After the consumption of the flesh, the peelings are just thrown as garbage with no use. India is facing two major problems, energy crisis and proper waste disposal. So, we are here with an idea of using that waste peelings to produce ethanol to help for its increasing demand in the present situation. Method: The production of Ethanol from Banana peels involves two phases. i)Fermentation ii)Distillation The peels of nendran variety of bananas are taken as they are rich in cellulose and are kept in hot oven at 338K and dried sample is taken and is dissolved in hot water for starch extraction through soxhlet apparatus. This solution is treated with amylase enzyme for hydrolysis of starch to occur. It is the subjected to fermentation process by inoculation of S.cerevisiae for 3 days at 300K which results in the production of ethanol. Ethanol from the solution is extracted by the Steam distillation which is the most efficient of all the distillation processes. Steam is supplied from the top of the flask in which ethanol solution is present and the ethanol vapours are collected from another outlet and are cooled to obtain ethanol. Result: For 320 gm of dried sample, this yields 18.36% of the ethanol production. The main advantage of Ethanol is its organic origins. Ethanol does burn cleaner than gasoline and also doesnot contain significant amounts of toxic materials like lead and benzene.When Ethanol of 15% when blended with 75% of gasoline is used for vehicles, it emits less amount of toxic substances comparatively. Conclusion: This experiment finds an effective bio-waste that could be converted into ethanol to help relieve the dependency on oil and the environment. Banana peel is a wastage material by using it we can produce more ethanol because it has more sugar when compared to other household bio-wastages. This also meets the need of energy crisis as well as a solution for the disposal of waste materials. Bibliography: www.techtop.in/asset http://www.sciencedirect.com http://region3.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=402:ethanol-production-from-waste-banana-peelings-&catid=15:chemistry&Itemid=45

Questions 1-6 Sobel

TCP connections which can be blocked by firewalls.. Which command would you give to update all installed packages using yam? Um update but If you are using older versions the yum update might not work you would need to use the yum update command Why would you build a package from a source ode when a (binary) RPM file Is evolvable? = because a source code you can modify the shell and with a binary you cannot also some binary distributions require that you unpack the software from the root directory Suggest two advantages that RPM files have over source distributions? = automatic dependency resolution, faster installation, easier to deploy.When you compile a package yourself rather from an RPM file, which directory hierarchy should you put It In? = /USSR,'local/mend What deer some steps you should take before performing an upgrade on a mission critical server? Perform the upgrade on an identically configured spare system and see what breaks and how to fix It. In particular, look for r ampages files and see what configuration information needs to be changed manually, when would you use RPM -I instead of RPM ?u?You would use -l (followed by the name) to leave the old kernel intact when you install a new kernel and the -u (command) followed by the name of the file you would use when you want to upgrade the package and install the new package. And make sure you have everything backed up also as a safety precaution Page 582 chapter 14 questions 1-10 which commands can you use from the command line to send a file to the default printer? Ip filename or you can use Pr filename and either of those commands will print to the default printer or the only printer on the system.What command would you give to cancel all print jobs on the system? You can use either cancel -a or PRM – but you have to be in root in order to have this command work Which commands list your outstanding print Jobs? You can use Pips or you can use Pasta and either one of those will tell you what print jobs are in the queue What is the purpose of sharing a Linux printer using a samba? Sheering d Linux printer using Samba allows Windows and SO/2 clients to send print Jobs to the printer Name three printing protocols that cups supports? Http, PDP/lap,SMB and jittered (socket) protocols and up Is the native protocol which command list the Installed printer drivers available to cups? Pippin -m head How would you send a text file toe printer connected to d first parallel port without using the print queue? Cat tile ; deeper that is a command you can use, the bad thing is that it does not check to see if there Is other files being printed and you could get bunch of garbled output which ends up wasting paper and the other bad thing about It Is that you do not get another command prompt till the printing is finished unless you add an ampersand to the end of the command.What command would you use to add the printer to the TLS USB port Witt the name USB printer Vitamin -p Sprinter -E USB:/deep/USB/loop -P unprinted. PDP How would you define a quota that allows each user to print up to 50 pages per week too printer named Laser? = Vitamin -p laser -o Job page-limit?50 Define a set of access control rules for a let;Location; container inside etc/cups/cusps. Con that would allow anyone to print to all printers as long as they were either on the local machine or in the madwoman. Com domain? = ;Location [printers;gt

Youth and Politics

Madhu Babu. K, Contact me in 08105837859, Youth And Politics Youth are young generation of the country. They play a vital role in the development of country. A famous writer Sri Sri(Srirangam Srinivas)said that â€Å"Our country is not in the hands of lazy and corrupted old politicians,this country is ours i. e youth†. A country with good political government is said to be developed country. But politicians are misbehaving. They are mainly focussing on earning profits and neglecting development of people as welll as country. Everyone is telling that â€Å"Politics is corrupted. But politics is not corrupted. Politicians are corrupted†. Earlier common people are afraid of policemen. But now policemen are afraid of politicians. We want politicians like Shyam Prasad Mukherjee,Dr. B. R. Ambedkar,Abdul Kalam,lal Bahdur Shastry,Kamraj Nadar,Prakasam Panthulu etc. to eliminate corruption and also for development of country. Generally people used to tell â€Å"Youth is spoiled. But spoiled is Politics†. Youth should join hands to enter politics to protect our country from old orrupting politicians. Youth have the capacity to do anything. Youth should be encouraged to enter politics. This is possible only by educational institutions. A compulsoy subject about politics should be introduced in colleges to create a desire among young generation to enter politics. In olden days a child from every famil y will join military army to protect their kingdom. Similarly a student from each educational institution should enter politics to protect and develop our country. Ther are colleges for Engineering,Medicine,Management etc. Why can’t we have a college for politics? Everyone is telling that Educatin gives knowledge. Politics with knowledgabie youth will lead to development of the country. But youth are applying their knowledge in other fields. Every student/youth is telling that they will become Engineer or Doctor. But no one is telling that â€Å"they will become POLITICIAN†. Though our country is said to be Democratic,it is in the hands of politicians and their families. The system of giving political seata to his/her relatives or family if he/she(politician) is dead should be changed. Some politicians are using Youth for illegal activities. So youth should be aware about them. Because of those politicians youth are also getting corrupted. For a stable government Youth should enter politics. Youth should not mingle with corrupted politicians. By giving opportunities to youth new ideas can be generated and better solutions can be obtained for complex problems. There is retirement for every job. But politicians are not following retirement. Hence a slight modification must be made in our constitution that â€Å"Any politician who are above 65 years must be retired from his position† Though politicians with more age have experience and take better decisions the position should be given to his subordinates based on the experience after retirement of his/her post. Youth are voting at age of 18. Why can’t they show interest to enter politics by age 21? Youth should be given chance by all political parties to enter politics. A certain reservation in politics should be given compulsorily to youth in politics. Not only youth alone can develop country. But youth with some experienced Politicians will be helpful to develop country. Let us remember the words of Sri Rabindranath Tagore. He wrote in â€Å"Gtanjali† that he wants to see our country â€Å"as heaven where there is no ego hurtings,one person will not steal others,every person is happy and live happily†. To make our country â€Å"Sujalm,Suphalam,Matharam†Youth should enter Politics.

The Indus Valley Civilization History Essay

The Indus Valley civilisation is besides known as the Harappan Civilization after the small town named Harappa, in what is now Pakistan, where the civilisation was foremost discovered. It is besides known as the Indus Civilization because two of its best-known metropoliss, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, are situated along the Bankss of the Indus River. This name is inaccurate. Most of the civilisation ‘s colonies were situated along the every bit monolithic Ghaggar-Hakra river system, which is now mostly nonextant. The Indus Valley civilisation extended over a big part of contemporary Pakistan and western India. It flourished between 2600 and 1900 BC. Forgotten to history prior to its rediscovery in the 1920s, the Indus civilisation — as it is more normally ( if inaccurately ) called — ranks with its coevalss, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, as one of the three earliest of all human civilisations, as defined by the outgrowth of metropoliss and composing. The Indus civilisation was non the earliest human civilisation ; Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt developed metropoliss somewhat before the Indus civilisation did. Nevertheless, the Indus civilisation was by far the most geographically extended of the three earliest civilisations. Over 1000 colonies have been found, the bulk along the way of the nonextant Ghaggar-Hakra river, which one time flowed — like the Indus — through what is now known as the Indus Valley. ( It is due to the Ghaggar-Hakra ‘s prominence that some bookmans, with justification, prefer to talk of the Indus Valley civilisation instead than the Indus civilisation ; for the interest of brevity, this article will utilize the older terminology. ) Other Indus civilisation colonies were situated along the Indus and its feeders or spread every bit widely as Mumbai ( Bombay ) to the South, Delhi to the E, the Persian boundary line to the West and the Himalayas to the north. Among the colonies are legion metropoliss, including Dholavira [ ? ] , Ganeriwala [ ? ] , Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro and Rakhigarhi [ ? ] . At its extremum, its population may hold exceeded five million people. In changeless, close communicating were towns and metropoliss separated by distances of 1000 kilometer. For all its accomplishments, the Indus civilisation is ill understood. Its really being was forgotten until the twentieth century. Its authorship system remains undeciphered. Among the Indus civilisation ‘s enigmas are cardinal inquiries, including its agencies of subsistence and the causes of its sudden, dramatic disappearing, get downing around 1900 BC. We do non cognize what linguistic communication Indus civilisation spoke. We do non cognize what they called themselves. All of these facts stand in stark contrast to what is known about its coevalss, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt.Table of contents1 Predecessors 2 Emergence of Civilization 3 Cities 4 Economy 5 Agribusiness 6 Writing 7 Decline and Collapse 8 Bequest 9 External MentionsPredecessorsThe Indus civilisation was predated by the first agriculture civilizations in south Asia, which emerged in the hills Baluchistan, to the West of the Indus Valley. The best-known site of this civilization is Mehrgarh, established around 6500 BC [ ? ] . These early husbandmans domesticated wheat and a assortment of animate beings, including cowss. Pottery was in usage by around 5500 BC [ ? ] . The Indus civilization grew out of this civilization ‘s technological base, every bit good as its geographic enlargement into the alluvial fields of what are now the states of Sindh and Punjab in modern-day Pakistan. By 4000 BC, a typical, regional civilization, called pre-Harappan, had emerged in this country. ( It is called pre-Harappan because remains of this widespread civilization are found in the early strata of Indus civilisation metropoliss. ) Trade webs linked this civilization with related regional civilizations and distant beginnings of natural stuffs, including lapis lazuli and other stuffs for bead-making. Villagers had, by this clip, domesticated legion harvests, including peas, benne seed, day of the months, and cotton, every bit good as a broad scope of domestic animate beings, including the H2O American bison, an animate being that remains indispensable to intensive agricultural production throughout Asia today.Emergence of CivilizationBy 2600 BC, some pre-Harappan colonies grew into metropoliss incorporating 1000s of people who were non chiefly engaged in agribusiness. Subsequently, a incorporate civilization emerged throughout the country, conveying into conformance colonies th at were separated by every bit much as 1,000 kilometer. and muffling regional differences. So sudden was this civilization ‘s outgrowth that early bookmans thought that it must hold resulted from external conquering or migration. Yet archeologists have demonstrated that this civilization did, in fact, arise from its pre-Harappan predecessor. The civilization ‘s sudden visual aspect appears to hold been the consequence of planned, deliberate attempt. For illustration, some colonies appear to hold been intentionally rearranged to conform to a witting, well-developed program. For this ground, the Indus civilisation is recognized to be the first to develop urban planning.CitiesThe Indus civilisation ‘s preference for urban planning is apparent in the larger colonies and metropoliss. Typically, the metropolis is divided into two subdivisions. The first country includes a raised, earthen platform ( dubbed the â€Å" Citadel † by early archeologists ) . The 2nd cou ntry ( called the â€Å" lower metropolis † ) contains tightly packed places and stores, every bit good as chiseled streets that were laid out to a precise program. A system of unvarying weights and steps was in usage, and streets and back streets are of stiffly unvarying breadth in virtually all Harappan sites. The chief edifice stuff was brick, both fired and sun-baked, of a strictly standardised size. The largest metropoliss every bit many as 30,000 people. As seen in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, the best-known ( and perchance the largest ) metropoliss, this urban program included the universe ‘s first urban sanitation systems. Within the metropolis, single places or groups of places obtained H2O from Wellss. From a room that appears to hold been set aside for bathing, waste H2O was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Although the well-engineered system drained waste H2O from the metropolis, it seems clear that the streets were far from fragrant. Houses opened merely to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The intent of the â€Å" Citadel † remains a affair of argument. In crisp contrast to this civilisation ‘s coevalss, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no big, monumental constructions were built. There is no conclusive grounds of castles or temples — or, so, of male monarchs, ground forcess, or priests. Some constructions are thought to hold been garners. Found at one metropolis is an tremendous, well-built bath, which may hold been a public bath. Although the â€Å" Citadels † are walled, it is far from clear that these constructions were defensive. They may hold been built to deviate inundation Waterss. Most metropolis inhabitants appear to hold been bargainers or craftsmans, who lived with others prosecuting the same business in chiseled vicinities. Materials from distant parts were used in the metropoliss for building seals, beads and other objects. Among the artefacts made were beautiful beads made of glassy rock ( called faience [ ? ] . The seals have images of animate beings, Gods etc. , and letterings. Some of the seals were used to stomp clay on trade goods, but they likely had other utilizations. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilisation metropoliss were singular for their evident equalitarianism. For illustration, all houses had entree to H2O and drainage installations. One gets the feeling of a huge, middle-class society.EconomyThe Indus civilisation ‘s economic system appears to hold depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major progresss in conveyance engineering. These progresss included bullock-driven carts that are indist inguishable to those seen throughout South Asia today, every bit good as boats. Most of these boats were likely little, flat-bottomed trade, possibly driven by canvas, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today ; nevertheless, there is secondary grounds of sea-going trade: late, archeologists have discovered a monolithic, dredged canal and docking installation at a coastal metropolis. Judging from the dispersion of Indus civilisation artefacts, the trade webs economically integrated a immense country, including parts of Afghanistan, the coastal parts of Persia, northern and cardinal India, and Mesopotamia. A Sumerian lettering appears to utilize the name Meluhha to mention to the Indus civilisation. If so, it is the lone grounds we possess that might propose what Indus civilisation people called themselves.AgribusinessIndus civilisation agribusiness must hold been extremely productive ; after all, it was capable of bring forthing excesss sufficient to back up 10s of 1000s of urban occupants who were non chiefly engaged in agribusiness. It relied on the considerable technological accomplishments of the pre-Harappan civilization, including the Big Dipper. Still, really small is known about the husbandmans who supported the metropoliss or their agricultural methods. Some of them doubtless made usage of the fertile alluvial dirt [ ? ] left by rivers after the inundati on season, but this simple method of agribusiness is non thought to be productive plenty to back up metropoliss. There is no grounds of irrigation, but such grounds could hold been obliterated by repeated, ruinous inundations. The Indus civilisation appears to disconfirm the Oriental Despotism [ ? ] hypothesis, which is concerned with the beginning of urban civilisation and the province. Harmonizing to this hypothesis, metropoliss could non hold arisen without irrigation systems capable of bring forthing monolithic agricultural excesss [ ? ] . To construct these systems, a despotic, centralised province emerged that was capable of stamp downing the societal position of 1000s of people and tackling their labour as slaves. It is really hard to square this hypothesis with what is known about the Indus civilisation. There is no grounds of irrigation — and what is more, there is no grounds of male monarchs, slaves, or forced mobilisation of labour. It is frequently assumed that intensive agricultural production requires dikes and canals. This premise is easy refuted. Throughout Asia, rice husbandmans produce important agricultural excesss from terraced, hillside rice Paddies [ ? ] , which result non from bondage but instead the accrued labour of many coevalss of people. Alternatively of edifice canals, Indus civilisation people may hold built H2O recreation strategies, which — like patio agribusiness [ ? ] — can be elaborated by coevalss of small-scale labour investings. In add-on, it is known that Indus civilisation people practiced rainfall harvest home [ ? ] , a powerful engineering that was brought to fruition by classical Indian civilisation but about forgotten in the twentieth century. It should be remembered that Indus civilisation people, like all peoples in South Asia, built their lives around the monsoon, a conditions form in which the majority of a twelvemonth ‘s rainfall occurs in a four-month pe riod. At a late discovered Indus civilisation metropolis in western India, archaeologists discovered a series of monolithic reservoirs, hewn from solid stone and designed to roll up rainfall, that would hold been capable of run intoing the metropolis ‘s demands during the dry season. The nature of the Indus civilisation ‘s agricultural system is still mostly a affair of speculation. But the affair is of import. It is possible that this civilisation teaches an of import lesson. By agencies of corporate societal action and harmonious integrating with the natural environment, human existences may hold one time created considerable economic prosperity without societal inequality or political subjugation. If this is so the Indus civilisation ‘s accomplishment, it is among the most baronial in all human history.WritingThe Indus civilisation remains cryptic in another manner: Despite legion efforts, bookmans have non been able to decode the Indus book. One job is the deficiency of grounds. Most of the known letterings have been found on seals or ceramic pots, and are no more than 4 or 5 characters in length ; the longest is 26 characters. There is no grounds of a organic structure of literature. A complicating factor: No 1 knows which linguistic communicatio n Indus civilisation people spoke ; likely campaigners are the Dravidian linguistic communication household, the Munda, the Indo-Aryan, and Sumerian. Were it known which linguistic communication was spoken by Indus civilisation people, bookmans might derive hints that could assist them decode the book. But no 1 knows. Because the letterings are so short, some bookmans wonder whether the Indus book fell abruptly of a true authorship system ; it has been suggested that the system amounted to little more than a agency of entering individuality in economic minutess. Still, it is possible that longer texts were written in perishable media. Morever, there is one, little piece of grounds proposing that the book embodies a well-known, widespread, and complex communicating system. At a late discovered Indus civilisation metropolis in Western India, grounds has been found that appears to be the leftovers of a big mark that was mounted above the gate to the metropolis. Possibly it was designed to inform travellers ( who would hold been legion ) of the metropolis ‘s name, correspondent to the welcome marks seen today along main roads taking to major metropoliss.Decline and CollapseFor 700 old ages, the Indus civilisation provided its peoples with prosperity and copiousness and its craftsmans produced go ods of exceling beauty and excellence. But about every bit all of a sudden as the civilisation emerged, it declined and disappeared. No 1 knows why. Around 1900 BC, marks began to emerge of mounting jobs. Peoples started to go forth the metropoliss. Those who remained were ill nourished. By around 1800 BC, most of the metropoliss were abandoned. In the centuries to come — and once more, in crisp contrast to its coevalss, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt — remembrance of the Indus civilisation and its accomplishments seemed to vanish from the record of human experience. Unlike the antediluvian Egyptians and Mesopotamians, Indus civilisation people built no immense, stone memorials to certify to their being. One could reason that they could non make so because rock was difficult to come by in the Indus Valley alluvial sediment. One could besides reason that the construct of an tremendous, intimidating memorial was foreign to their position of the universe. To be certain, Indus civilisation people did non vanish. In the wake of the Indus civilisation ‘s prostration, regional civilizations emerged, all of which show the tarriance influence — to changing grades — of the Indus civilisation. In the once great metropolis of Harappa, entombments have been found that correspond to a regional civilization called the Cemetery H civilization. Some former Indus civilisation people appear to hold migrated to the E, toward the Gangetic Plain [ ? ] . What disappeared was non the people, but the civilisation: the metropoliss, the authorship system, the trade webs, and — finally — the political orientation that so evidently provided the rational foundation for this civilisation ‘s integrating. In the past, many bookmans argued that the prostration was so sudden that it must hold been caused by foreign conquering. In the 19th century, some bookmans argued that â€Å" superior † Aryan encroachers, with their Equus caballuss and chariots, conquered the â€Å" crude, † â€Å" dark, † and â€Å" weak † peoples they encountered in ancient South Asia. Subsequently, these â€Å" white † encroachers intermingled with the autochthonal â€Å" dark † population, and grew â€Å" weak † — and hence ripe for repeated conquering. It was portion of a larger, fabulous narration that was used to legalize the English colonisation of the â€Å" weak † and â€Å" dark † peoples of India. These thoughts were developed before the find of the Indus civilisation itself, when it was assumed that the pre-Aryan Indian populations lived crude lives. When the civilisation was discovered in the 1920s, these statements were adapted to s how the Indo-Aryans as energetic barbaric warriors who overthrew a inactive or peaceable urban civilization. In the words of the archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, the Indo-Aryan war God Indra ‘stands accused ‘ of the devastation. Current thought does non give much acceptance to the position that the Indo-Aryans were responsible for the prostration of the Indus civilisation, or that ‘ † white † encroachers displaced or subordinated â€Å" dark † indigens. Centuries would go through before Cardinal Asiatic Indo-Aryans appeared in South Asia. Even so, there is no grounds — an vague Vedic mention notwithstanding — that these peoples conquered a civilisation. The facts are these: by the clip the Central Asiatic peoples arrived, the Indus civilisation had collapsed. What caused the prostration? It seems undeniable that a major factor was climatic alteration. In 2600 BC, the Indus Valley was verdant, forested, and pullulating with wildlife. It was wetter, excessively. Floods were a job and appear, on more than one juncture, to hold overwhelmed certain colonies. A point in fact: Indus civilisation people supplemented their diet with hunting, a fact that is all but impossible when 1 considers today ‘s dessicated, denuded environment. By 1800 BC, the clime is known to hold changed. It became significantly cooler and drier. But this fact entirely may non hold been sufficient to convey down the Indus civilisation. The important factor may hold been the disappearing of significant parts of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system. A tectonic event may hold diverted the system ‘s beginnings toward the Ganges Plain, though there is some uncertainness about the day of the month of this event. Such a statement may look doubtful if one does non recognize that the passage between the Indus and Gangetic plains sums to a affair of inches, and is all but unperceivable. The part in which the river ‘s Waterss once arose is known to be geologically active, and there is grounds of major tectonic events at the clip the Indus civilisation collapsed. The river ‘s very being was unknown until the late twentieth century, when geologists used satellite photographs to follow its former class through the Indus Valley. If the Ghaggar-Hakra river system dried up when the Indus civilisation was at its tallness, the effects would hold been lay waste toing. Refugees would hold flooded the other metropoliss. The â€Å" critical mass † needed for economic integrating would hold collapsed. The most likely account is that the causes were multiple — and, in their collection, ruinous. In the worsening old ages, Indus civilisation people tried to hang on to their old manner of life, but in the terminal, they gave up. By 1600 BC, the metropoliss were deserted. In the nineteenth century, British applied scientists discovered that the abundant bricks found in the ruins — in which they expressed no apparent wonder — provided first-class natural stuffs for railroad building. They proceeded to destruct much of the available archeological grounds.BequestThe relationship between the Indus civilisation and the early Sanskrit linguistic communication civilization that produced the Vedic texts of Hinduism is ill-defined. It is perplexing that the most ancient Vedic texts — unwritten traditions that were non written down until long after Central Asians had settled in the Gangetic Plain and intermingled with its autochthonal occupants — speak of a bea utiful river, the Sarasvati river. They recall a thriving, Utopian life style that emerged along its Bankss. The texts besides seem to depict the sad narrative of the river ‘s disappearing. Still, all the grounds suggests that the supposed writers of the earliest Vedas — â€Å" Indo-european † migrators from Central Asia — did non look until many centuries after the Indus civilisation ‘s prostration. Are the ancient Vedic mentions to the Sarasviti River strictly fabulous? Did they refer to some other river? Did they refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra river? We are in the kingdom of speculation. To perplex affairs, this topic has been drawn into the struggle that divides India and Pakistan. Still, it is possible Vedic civilisation, originating centuries after the Indus civilisation ‘s ruin, evolved in a duologue between Central Asian immigrants and autochthonal, small town peoples, who may hold recalled — possibly mythologically — the Indus civilisation ‘s magnificence and its prostration. This reading squares with some of the grounds. The â€Å" Aryan † migrators who arrived in India centuries after the Indus civilisation ‘s prostration were related to other peoples who migrated to the Middle East and Europe during the same period ; all these peoples brought with them a typical faith focused on the worship of a Sun God. In India, these beliefs shortly gave manner to a well more advanced and sophisticated spiritual tradition, Hinduism, which looks to the most ancient Vedas as a beginning of legitimacy but departs from them philosophically in important ways. It is possible ( but however a affair of speculation ) that the Indus civilisation ‘s bequest contributed to Hinduism ‘s development. As several archeologists have noted, there is something indescribably â€Å" Indian † about the Indus vale civilisation. Judging from the abundant statuettes picturing female birthrate that they left buttocks, Indus civilisation people — like mod ern Hindus — may hold held a particular topographic point in their worship for a female parent goddess and the life-affirming rules she represents ( see Shakti and Kali ) . Their seals depict animate beings in a manner that seems to propose fear, possibly boding Hindu strong beliefs sing the sacredness of cowss. Like Hindus today, Indus civilisation people seemed to hold placed a high value on bathing, personal cleanliness, and shacking with one ‘s extended household. Possibly the most of import bequest of the Indus civilisation, if such a bequest exists, was its passive resistance. In amazing and dramatic contrast to other ancient civilisations, the archeological record of the Indus civilisation provides small or no believable grounds of ground forcess, male monarchs, slaves, societal struggle, political subjugation, gross societal inequalities, prisons, and the other afflictions that we associate with civilisation. Make the Indus civilisation contribute in some manner to the construct of ahimsa ( passive resistance ) , one of the most of import of all Hindu beliefs? Possibly we will ne'er cognize. But we should retrieve the words of Mahatma Gandhi: â€Å" I have nil new to learn the universe. Truth and non-violence are every bit old as the hills. †External Mentionshypertext transfer protocol: //www.harappa.com/ has descriptions and exposure of archeological diggings. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.safarmer.com/frontline/ shows how the Indus Valley Civilization has become combative in contemporary Indian political relations, giving a sum-up of present cognition. All Wikipedia text is available under the footings of the GNU Free Documentation LicenseAA Search EncyclopediaSearch over one million articles, happen something about about anything!ATop of Form Bottom of FormAA AA Featured Article1892 †¦ cosmonautics, and projectile applied scientist ( + 1929 ) . Ernest Brastins [ ? ] born in Latvia, spiritual leader ( Dievturiba ) Deaths January 31 – Charles Spurgeon February 11 – †¦